Digestible protein requirement of Nile tilapia fingerlings fed fishmeal-free diets based on soybean meal and corn: growth performance, liver histology, and carcass characteristics

Authors

Abstract

This experiment aimed to determine the digestible protein (DP) requirement of Nile tilapia fingerlings fed fishmeal-free diets based on soybean meal and corn by evaluating growth performance and carcass characteristics. Nile tilapia fingerlings (0.84 ± 0.11 g; n = 450) were distributed in a completely randomized design with six treatments consisting of isocaloric diets based on soybean meal and corn containing increasing levels of DP (200, 240, 270, 320, 360, and 390 g kg-1) and 3,000 kcal kg-1 digestible energy, with five replicates per treatment. Dietary DP levels had a quadratic effect (p < 0.05) on final weight, weight gain, feed conversion ratio, specific growth rate, standard length, and whole-body protein, moisture, and ash contents. No significant effects (p > 0.05) were observed on hepatosomatic index, hepatocyte diameter, or the other carcass traits evaluated (carcass yield, headless carcass yield, clean trunk yield, fillet yield, and whole-body ether extract content). This study demonstrated that fishmeal-free diets based on soybean meal and corn can be used for Nile tilapia fingerlings, and a dietary level of 320.24 g kg-1 DP is recommended to optimize final weight, weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and whole-body protein content.
Keywords: Oreochromis niloticus; carcass characteristics; digestible protein; zootechnical performance.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2024: Blue Transformation in action [Internet]. Rome: FAO; 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4060/cd0683en

2. Brazilian Fisheries Association (PEIXE BR). Anuário Peixe BR da Piscicultura de 2026 [Internet]. [cited 29 May 2026]. Available at: https://www.peixebr.com.br/anuario-2026

3. Deck CA, Salger SA, Reynolds HM, Tada MD, Severance ME, Ferket P, et al. Nutritional programming in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus): effect of low dietary protein on growth and the intestinal microbiome and transcriptome. PLoS One. 2023;18(10):e0292431. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292431

4. Meurer F, Novodworski J, Bombardelli RA. Protein requirements in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) during production and reproduction phases. Aquac. Fish. 2025. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaf.2024.03.004

5. Ramakrishnan GS, Pradhan C, Singh AK, Das S, Pillai D, Mohanta KN. Effect of alpha-ketoglutarate supplementation on growth, antioxidant capacity, gene expression and amino acid profile in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) under varying protein diets. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2023;306:115808. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2023.115808

6. Furuya WM, Cruz TP, Gatlin DM III. Amino acid requirements for nile tilapia: an update. Animals. 2023;13:900. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13050900

7. Teodósio R, Engrola S, Colen R, Masagounder K, Aragão C. Optimizing diets to decrease environmental impact of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) production. Aquac. Nutr. 2020;26(2):422-431. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.13004

8. Konnert GDP, Gerrits WJJ, Gussekloo SWS, Schrama JW. Balancing protein and energy in Nile tilapia feeds: a meta-analysis. Rev. Aquac. 2022;14(4):1757-1778. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12671

9. Xing S, Liang X, Zhang X, Oliva-Teles A, Peres H, Li M, et al. Essential amino acid requirements of fish and crustaceans, a meta-analysis. Rev. Aquac. 2024;16(3):1069-1086. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12886

10. Anedda R, Melis R, Palomba A, Vitangeli I, Biosa G, Braca A, et al. Balanced replacement of fish meal with Hermetia illucens meal allows efficient hepatic nutrient metabolism and increases fillet lipid quality in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata). Aquaculture. 2023;576:739862. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2023.739862

11. Colombo SM, Turchini GM. ‘Aquafeed 3.0’: creating a more resilient aquaculture industry with a circular bioeconomy framework. Rev. Aquac. 2021;13(3):1156-1158. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12567

12. Masi M, Adinolfi F, Vecchio Y, Agnusdei GP, Coluccia B. Toward the circular economy in the aquaculture sector: bibliometric, network and content analyses. Sustainability. 2024;16(13):5405. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135405

13. Kruk SRL, Bush SR, Phillips M. Federating ‘Aquaculture 4.0’ for data-driven social and environmental sustainability. Marine Policy. 2024;169:106355. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2024.106355

14. Novodworski J, Matos ÉJA, Gonçalves RM, Bombardelli RA, Meurer F. Protein level reduction in corn and soybean meal-based diets supplemented with essential amino acids during the fattening phase of Nile tilapia. Ann. Anim. Sci. 2025;25(4):1565-1574. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2478/aoas-2025-0055

15. Phan LTT, Kals J, Masagounder K, Mas-Muñoz J, Schrama JW. Energy utilisation efficiencies of digestible protein, fat and carbohydrates for African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Aquac. Rep. 2022;23:101051. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2022.101051

16. Hussain SM, Bano AA, Ali S, Rizwan M, Adrees M, Zahoor AF, et al. Substitution of fishmeal: highlights of potential plant protein sources for aquaculture sustainability. Heliyon. 2024;10(4):e26573. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26573

17. Magbanua TO, Ragaza JA. Selected dietary plant-based proteins for growth and health response of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquac. Fish. 2024;9(1):3-17. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaf.2022.04.001

18. Matos ÉJA, Urbinati EC, Meurer F. Farinha de folhas na nutrição de peixes/Leaf meal in fish nutrition. Ponta Grossa: Atena Editora; 2024. 92 p. Available at: https://doi.org/10.22533/at.ed.603231212

19. Moyo NAG, Rapatsa-Malatji MM. A review and meta-analysis of selected plant protein sources as a replacement of fishmeal in the diet of tilapias. Ann. Anim. Sci. 2023;23(3):681-690. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2478/aoas-2022-0084

20. Costa LC, Feiden A. Diagnosis of fingerling production in the micro region of Toledo in Paraná. Research, Society and Development. 2023;12:e28812340753. Available at: https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v12i3.40753

21. Koroleff F. Determination of nutrients: 2. Ammonia. In: Grasshoff K, editor. Methods of seawater analysis. Weinheim: Verlag Chemie; 1976. p. 126-133.

22. Baumgarten MDGZ, Rocha JMB, Niencheski LFH. Manual de análises em oceanografia química; FURG: Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, BR; 1996. 132p.

23. Macêdo JAB. Métodos laboratoriais de análises físico-químicas e microbiológicas, 3rd ed.; Conselho Regional de Química: Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, BR; 2005. 616p.

24. Fleckenstein LJ, Tierney TW, Ray AJ. Comparing biofloc, clear-water, and hybrid recirculating nursery systems (Part II): tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) production and water quality dynamics. Aquac. Eng. 2018;82:80-85. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaeng.2018.06.006

25. Lailiyah M, Harwanto D, Desrina D. Effectiveness of filter media compositions on water quality, growth and survival rate of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) cultured in recirculation system. Omni-Akuatika. 2023;19:34-46. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.20884/1.oa.2023.19.1.963

26. Boscolo WR, Hayashi C, Meurer F. Apparent digestibility of the energy and nutrients of conventional and alternative foods for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Rev. Bras. Zootec. 2002;31(3):539-545. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-35982002000300001

27. Moreira AGL, Teixeira EG, Carreiro CRP, Moreira RL. Eficácia do eugenol extraído da planta Eugenia aromatica como anestésico para realização de biometrias em adultos de tilápia do Nilo (Oreochromis niloticus). Acta Sci. Anim. Sci. 2010;32(4):419-423. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4025/actascianimsci.v32i4.9973

28. AOAC - Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official methods of analysis of the Association Analytical Chemists, 18th ed.; AOAC International: Gaithersburg, Maryland, US; 2005. 1015p.

29. R CORE TEAM. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, 2022. Available at: https://www.r-project.org/

30. Ferreira EB, Cavalcanti PP, Nogueira DA. ExpDes: Experimental Designs Package, R package version 1.2.2, 2021. Available at: https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/ExpDes/index.html (accessed on 3 December 2023).

31. Wickham H, François R, Henry L, Müller K, Vaughan D. dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation. R package version 1.1.3, 2023. Available at: https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/dplyr/index.html

32. Wickham H. ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis. New York: Springer; 2016.

33. Elzhov TV, Mullen KM, Spiess A, Bolker B. minpack.lm: R Interface to the Levenberg-Marquardt Nonlinear Least-Squares Algorithm Plus Support for Bounds. R package version 1.2-4, 2023. Available at: https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/minpack.lm/index.html

34. NRC - National Research Council. Nutrient Requirements of Fish and Shrimp. The National Academies Press: Washinton, DC, US; 2011. 367 p. Available at: https://doi.org/10.17226/13039

35. Azaza MS, Khiari N, Dhraief MN, Aloui N, Kraϊem MM, Elfeki A. Growth performance, oxidative stress indices and hepatic carbohydrate metabolic enzymes activities of juvenile Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus L., in response to dietary starch to protein ratios. Aquac. Res. 2015;46:14-27. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/are.12153

36. Durigon EG, Lazzari R, Uczay J, Lopes DLA, Jeronimo GT, Sgnaulin T, et al. Biofloc technology (BFT): adjusting the levels of digestible protein and digestible energy in diets of Nile tilapia juveniles raised in brackish water. Aquac. Fish. 2020;5(1):42-51. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaf.2019.07.001

37. Sgnaulin T, Durigon EG, Pinho SM, Jerônimo GT, Lopes DLA, Emerenciano MGC. Nutrition of Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) in biofloc technology system: optimization of digestible protein and digestible energy levels during nursery phase. Aquaculture. 2020;521:734998. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.734998

38. Khanjani MH, Sharifinia M. Biofloc technology as a promising tool to improve aquaculture production. Rev Aquac. 2020;12(3):1836-1850. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12412

39. Khanjani MH, Sharifinia M, Hajirezaee S. Recent progress towards the application of biofloc technology for tilapia farming. Aquaculture. 2022;552:738021. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2022.738021

40. Zablon WO, Ogello EO, Getabu A, Omondi R. Biofloc system improves protein utilization efficiency and growth performance of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus fry: experimental evidence. Aquac. Fish. 2022;2(2):94-103. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/aff2.32

41. Sweilum MA, Abdella MM, El-Din SAS. Effect of dietary protein-energy levels and fish initial sizes on growth rate, development and production of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus L. Aquac. Res. 2005;36(14):1414-1421. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2005.01362.x

42.Sayed ABN. Optimum crude protein requirement of the fingerlings Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Biol Sci. 2018;2(1):1-8 https://doi.org/10.31058/j.bs.2018.21001

43. Chen JX, Feng JY, Zhu J, Luo L, Lin SM, Wang DS, et al. Starch to protein ratios in practical diets for genetically improved farmed Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus: effects on growth, body composition, peripheral glucose metabolism and glucose tolerance. Aquaculture. 2020;515:734538. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2019.734538

44. Abdel-Tawwab M, Ahmad MH, Khattab YAE, Shalaby AME. Effect of dietary protein level, initial body weight, and their interaction on the growth, feed utilization, and physiological alterations of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.). Aquaculture. 2010;298(3-4):267-274. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.10.027

45. Oliva-Teles A, Couto A, Enes P, Peres H. Dietary protein requirements of fish: a meta-analysis. Rev. Aquac. 2020;12(3):1445-1477. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12391

46. Castillo JDA, Pereira EMO, Teles A, Rodrigues E, Costa DV, Kitagawa AT, et al. Determining the daily digestible protein intake for Nile tilapia juveniles at different growth stages. Bol. Inst. Pesca. 2017;43(1):79-89. Available at: https://doi.org/10.20950/1678-2305.2017.54.63

47. Gonçalves GS, Pezzato LE, Barros MM, Hisano H, Santa Rosa MJ. Level of digestible protein and digestible energy in diets for Nile tilapia formulated based on the concept of ideal protein. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 2009;38(12):2289-2298. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-35982009001200001

48. Righetti JS, Furuya WM, Conejero CI, Graciano TS, Vidal LVO, Michellato M. Redução da proteína em dietas para tilápias-do-nilo por meio da suplementação de aminoácidos com base no conceito de proteína ideal. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 2011;40(3):469-476. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-35982011000300002

49. Quadros M, Lanna EAT, Donzele JL, Abreu MT, Ribeiro FB, Takishita SS. Crude protein reduction and digestible methionine+cystine and threonine to digestible lysine ratios in diets for Nile tilapia fingerlings. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 2009;38(8):1400-1406. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-35982009000800002

50. Goda AM, El-Haroun ER, Chowdhury MAK. Effect of totally or partially replacing fish meal by alternative protein sources on growth of African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) reared in concrete tanks. Aquac. Res. 2007;38(3):279-287. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2007.01663.x

51. Mohanta KN, Mohanty SN, Jena JK, Sahu NP. Protein requirement of silver barb, Puntius gonionotus fingerlings. Aquac. Nutr. 2008;14(2):143-152. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2007.00514.x

52. Vicentini CA, Franceschini-Vicentini IB, Bombonato MTS, Bertolucci B, Lima SG, Santos AS. Morphological study of the liver in the teleost Oreochromis niloticus. Int. J. Morphol. 2005;23(3):211-216. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-95022005000300003

53. Takashima F, Hibiya T. An atlas of fish histology: normal and pathological features. 2nd ed. Tokyo, Japan: Kodansha Limited; 1995. 195 p.

54. Zuanon JAS, Salaro AL, Moraes SSS, Oliveira Alves LM, Balbino EM, Araújo ES. Dietary protein and energy requirements of juvenile freshwater angelfish. Rev. Bras. Zootecn. 2009;38: 989-993. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-35982009000600003

55. Furuya WM, Botaro D, Macedo RMG, Santos VG, Silva LCR, Castro Silva T, et al. Aplicação do conceito de proteína ideal para redução dos níveis de proteína em dietas para tilápia-do-nilo (Oreochromis niloticus). Rev. Bras. Zootecn. 2005;34:1433-1441. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-35982005000500002

56. Jauncey K. Nutritional requirements. In: Beveridge MCM, McAndrew BJ, editors. Tilapias: biology and exploitation. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer; 2000. p. 327-375.

57. Elfeki A, Eid A, El Sayed K, Mostafa B, Salama FA. Effect of dietary protein levels and sex on growth performance, feed utilization and body composition of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fry cultured in hapas. Egypt, J. Nutr. Feeds. 2018;21:279-288. Available at: https://doi.org/10.21608/ejnf.2018.75467

58. Vidal LVO, Xavier TO, Michelato M, Martins EN, Pezzato LE, Furuya WM. Apparent protein and energy digestibility and amino acid availability of corn and co-products in extruded diets for Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. J. World Aquac. Soc. 2015;46(2):183-190. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12184

59. Rostagno HS, Albino LFT, Hannas MI, Donzele JL, Sakomura NK, Perazzo FG, et al. Tabelas brasileiras para aves e suínos: composição de alimentos e exigências nutricionais. 4th ed. Viçosa: Departamento de Zootecnia, UFV; 2017. 488 p.

60. Carneiro WF, Colpini LMS, Souza RCT de, Bombardelli RA, Balen RE, Meurer F. Effect of the digestible protein-energy relationship on the growth performance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed fishmeal-free diets. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2020;262:114379. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2019.114379

61. Nascimento TMT, Mansano CFM, Peres H, Rodrigues FHF, Khan KU, Romaneli RS, et al. Determination of the optimum dietary essential amino acid profile for growing phase of Nile tilapia by deletion method. Aquaculture. 2020;523:735204. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735204

62. Prabu E, Felix N, Uma A, Praveenraj J. Effects of dietary L-lysine supplementation on growth, body composition and muscle-growth-related gene expression with an estimation of lysine requirement of GIFT tilapia. Aquac Nutr. 2020;26(2):568-578. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.13018

63. Furuya WM, Hayashi C, Furuya VRB, Sakaguti ES, Botaro D, Silva LCR, et al. Farelo de soja integral em rações para juvenis de tilápia do Nilo (Oreochromis niloticus). Acta Sci. Anim. Sci. 2004;26(2):203-207.

64. He JY, Long WQ, Han B, Tian LX, Yang HJ, Zeng SL, et al. Effect of dietary L-methionine concentrations on growth performance, serum immune and antioxidative responses of juvenile Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Aquac. Res. 2017;48(2):665-674. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/are.12913

65. Bomfim MAD, Lanna EAT, Donzele JL, Quadros M, Ribeiro FB, Araújo WAG. Exigência de treonina, com base no conceito de proteína ideal, de alevinos de tilápia-do-nilo. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 2008;37(12):2077-2084. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-35982008001200001

66. Glencross BD, Baily J, Berntssen MHG, Hardy R, MacKenzie S, Tocher DR. Risk assessment of the use of alternative animal and plant raw material resources in aquaculture feeds. Rev. Aquac. 2020;12(2):703-758. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12347

Downloads

Published

2026-07-08

Issue

Vol. 27 (2026): Continuous publication

Section

ANIMAL SCIENCE

License

Copyright (c) 2026 Brazilian Animal Science/ Ciência Animal Brasileira

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:

  1. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
  2. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
  3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g. in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).

How to Cite

JÚNIOR, G. B. et al. Digestible protein requirement of Nile tilapia fingerlings fed fishmeal-free diets based on soybean meal and corn: growth performance, liver histology, and carcass characteristics. Brazilian Animal Science/ Ciência Animal Brasileira, v. 27, 8 Jul.2026.

Data statement

  • The research data is available on demand, condition justified in the manuscript